The 1-6 GHz range, specifically the 3.5 GHz C-band, is often considered the ‘sweet spot’ for 5G deployments. It offers a strong compromise: significantly more capacity and bandwidth than sub-1 GHz bands, while providing far better coverage and penetration than millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies. This makes it ideal for urban deployments where both coverage and capacity are key concerns.

While all layers add some delay, the Physical Layer (Layer 1) processing, which includes tasks like coding, modulation, and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) operations, typically contributes the largest portion of the latency budget in the radio protocol stack. Optimizations at this layer, such as shorter transmission time intervals (TTIs), are fundamental to achieving ultra-low latency targets in 5G.

Network slicing is a core 5G concept that creates logical, end-to-end virtual networks over a common physical infrastructure. The remote surgery example perfectly demonstrates this: it requires a slice with stringent guarantees on latency and reliability, completely isolated from the best-effort characteristics of a consumer broadband slice. This is a fundamental shift from ‘one-size-fits-all’ networks.

Dual Connectivity (specifically EN-DC for 4G/5G) is a key non-standalone (NSA) architecture feature. Its primary purpose is to allow the UE to have its user plane data split and transmitted/received concurrently over both the LTE (master node) and NR (secondary node) radio links. This aggregation directly increases the peak data rate and overall throughput experienced by the user during the migration phase.

The RRC Setup procedure occurs after the random access process. A high RRC Setup Failure Rate points to problems in the steps where the UE is trying to establish a signaling connection with the network. This is most commonly caused by issues like preamble contention during random access, or a lack of available resources (e.g., processing power, signaling bearers) in the radio access network to grant the RRC connection request.

While Massive MIMO often uses higher bands and wider bandwidths, its defining characteristic and primary advantage is the use of a large array of antenna elements (e.g., 64, 128). This enables advanced beamforming, allowing the base station to create narrow, high-gain beams directed at individual users. This improves signal quality (SNR), reduces interference, and significantly boosts network capacity and spectral efficiency.

CUPS is a key 5GC design principle. By decoupling the control plane (SMF, AMF) from the user plane (UPF), the UPFs can be deployed in a distributed fashion. This allows network operators to place UPFs at optimal locations, such as at the edge of the network near users or enterprise premises. This proximity is critical for achieving the low-latency requirements of applications like industrial IoT and augmented reality.

The Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF) is the single entry point in the 5G core for all connection and mobility-related signaling from the UE. It handles key procedures like registration, connection management, reachability, and mobility event notifications (even for stationary devices, their registration state is managed here). The SMF manages sessions, the AUSF handles authentication, and the UPF handles the data packet forwarding.

In 5G NR, ‘numerology’ is a fundamental concept that defines the subcarrier spacing (SCS) and the corresponding symbol duration. It is scalable, denoted by the parameter μ (mu). Different numerologies (e.g., 15 kHz, 30 kHz, 60 kHz) allow 5G to efficiently support diverse services: smaller SCS for wide coverage, and larger SCS for high-speed/low-latency scenarios, all within the same flexible framework.

The 1-6 GHz range, specifically the 3.5 GHz C-band, is often considered the ‘sweet spot’ for 5G deployments. It offers a strong compromise: significantly more capacity and bandwidth than sub-1 GHz bands, while providing far better coverage and penetration than millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies. This makes it ideal for urban deployments where both coverage and capacity are key concerns.0